Training children's theory-of-mind: A meta-analysis of controlled studies

Background: Theory-of-mind (ToM) refers to knowledge and awareness of mental states in oneself and others. Various training programs have been developed to improve ToM in children. Objectives: In the present study, we conducted a quantitative review of ToM training programs that have been tested in controlled studies. Data sources: A literature search was conducted using PubMed, PsycInfo, the Cochrane Library, and manual searches. Review methods: We identified 32 papers with 45 studies or experiments that included 1529 children with an average age of 63 months (SD = 28.7). Results: ToM training procedures were more effective than control procedures and their aggregate effect size was moderately strong (Hedges' g = 0.75, CI = 0.60-0.89, p < .001). Moderator analyses revealed that although ToM training programs were generally effective, ToM skill-related outcomes increased with length of training sessions and were significantly higher in active control studies. Conclusion: ToM training procedures can effectively enhance ToM in children.